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==Laws and constants==
 
==Laws and constants==
According to the law of universal gravitation, the attractive [[force]] (''F'') between two bodies is proportional to the product of their [[mass|masses]] (''m''<sub>1</sub> and ''m''<sub>2</sub>), and inversely proportional to the square of the distance ([[inverse square law]]) (''r'') between them:
+
According to the law of universal gravitation, the attractive [[force]] (''F'') between two bodies is proportional to the product of their [[mass]]es (''m''<sub>1</sub> and ''m''<sub>2</sub>), and inversely proportional to the square of the distance ([[inverse square law]]) (''r'') between them:
 
:<math>F = G \frac{m_1 m_2}{r^2}\ </math>
 
:<math>F = G \frac{m_1 m_2}{r^2}\ </math>
 
The [[constant of proportionality]], ''G'', is the gravitational constant.
 
The [[constant of proportionality]], ''G'', is the gravitational constant.
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The dimensions assigned to the gravitational constant in the equation above—[[length]] cubed, divided by [[mass]], and by [[time]] squared (in SI units, meters cubed per [[kilogram]] per second squared)—are those needed to balance the units of measurements in gravitational equations. However, these dimensions have fundamental significance in terms of [[Planck units]]: when expressed in SI units, the gravitational constant is dimensionally and numerically equal to the cube of the [[Planck length]] divided by the product of the [[Planck mass]] and the square of [[Planck time]].
 
The dimensions assigned to the gravitational constant in the equation above—[[length]] cubed, divided by [[mass]], and by [[time]] squared (in SI units, meters cubed per [[kilogram]] per second squared)—are those needed to balance the units of measurements in gravitational equations. However, these dimensions have fundamental significance in terms of [[Planck units]]: when expressed in SI units, the gravitational constant is dimensionally and numerically equal to the cube of the [[Planck length]] divided by the product of the [[Planck mass]] and the square of [[Planck time]].
   
In [[natural units]], of which [[Planck units]] are a common example, ''G'' and other physical constants such as ''c'' (the [[speed of light]]) may be set equal&nbsp;to&nbsp;1.
+
In [[natural units]], of which [[Planck units]] are a common example, ''G'' and other physical constants such as ''c'' (the [[speed of light]]) may be set equal&nbsp;to&nbsp;1.
   
 
In many secondary school texts, the dimensions of G are derived from force in order to assist student comprehension:
 
In many secondary school texts, the dimensions of G are derived from force in order to assist student comprehension:
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:<math> G \approx 4.302 \times 10^{-3} {\rm \ pc}\, M_\odot^{-1} \, {\rm (km/s)}^2. \, </math>
 
:<math> G \approx 4.302 \times 10^{-3} {\rm \ pc}\, M_\odot^{-1} \, {\rm (km/s)}^2. \, </math>
   
The gravitational force is extremely weak compared with other {{WPlink|fundamental forces}}. For example, the gravitational force between an {{WPlink|electron}} and {{WPlink|proton}} one meter apart is approximately 10<sup>−67</sup> [[newton|newtons]], while the {{WPlink|electromagnetic force}} between the same two particles is approximately 10<sup>−28</sup> newtons. Both these forces are weak when compared with the forces we are able to experience directly, but the electromagnetic force in this example is some thirty nine {{WPlink|orders of magnitude}} (i.e., 10<sup>39</MEAHAHAHAJAGDDHJIUGGCGHJHSASCBBJUGDDVJfgddcbnkkkbcaryjvcsFOOLFFDffjjbdsfgj
+
The gravitational force is extremely weak compared with other {{WPlink|fundamental forces}}. For example, the gravitational force between an {{WPlink|electron}} and {{WPlink|proton}} one meter apart is approximately 10<sup>−67</sup> [[newton]]s, while the {{WPlink|electromagnetic force}} between the same two particles is approximately 10<sup>−28</sup> newtons. Both these forces are weak when compared with the forces we are able to experience directly, but the electromagnetic force in this example is some thirty nine {{WPlink|orders of magnitude}} (i.e., 10<sup>39</sup>) greater than the force of gravity — roughly the same ratio as the {{WPlink|mass of the Sun}} compared to a microgram mass.
   
 
==History of measurement==
 
==History of measurement==
The gravitational constant appears in {{WPlink|Newton's law of universal gravitation}}, but it was not measured until seventy one years after Newton's death by [[Henry Cavendish]] with his [[Cavendish experiment]], performed in 1798 (''Philosophical Transactions'' 1798). Cavendish measured ''G'' implicitly, using a [[Torsion spring#Torsion balance|torsion balance]] invented by the geologist Rev. [[John Michell]]. He used a horizontal torsion beam with lead balls whose inertia (in relation to the torsion constant) he could tell by timing the beam's oscillation. Their faint attraction to other balls placed alongside the beam was detectable by the deflection it caused. Cavendish's aim was not actually to measure the gravitational constant, but rather to measure the Earth's density relative to water, through the precise knowledge of the gravitational interaction. In retrospect, the density that Cavendish calculated implies a value for G of 6.754 × 10<sup>−11</sup> m<sup>3</sup> kg<sup>&minus;1</sup> s<sup>&minus;2</sup>.<ref>{{Citation |author=Brush, Stephen G.; Holton, Gerald James |title=Physics, the human adventure: from Copernicus to Einstein and beyond |publisher=Rutgers University Press |location=New Brunswick, N.J |year=2001 |pages= 137 |isbn=0-8135-2908-5 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref>
+
The gravitational constant appears in {{WPlink|Newton's law of universal gravitation}}, but it was not measured until seventy one years after Newton's death by [[Henry Cavendish]] with his [[Cavendish experiment]], performed in 1798 (''Philosophical Transactions'' 1798). Cavendish measured ''G'' implicitly, using a [[Torsion spring#Torsion balance|torsion balance]] invented by the geologist Rev. [[John Michell]]. He used a horizontal torsion beam with lead balls whose inertia (in relation to the torsion constant) he could tell by timing the beam's oscillation. Their faint attraction to other balls placed alongside the beam was detectable by the deflection it caused. Cavendish's aim was not actually to measure the gravitational constant, but rather to measure the Earth's density relative to water, through the precise knowledge of the gravitational interaction. In retrospect, the density that Cavendish calculated implies a value for G of 6.754 × 10<sup>−11</sup> m<sup>3</sup> kg<sup>&minus;1</sup> s<sup>&minus;2</sup>.<ref>{{Citation |author=Brush, Stephen G.; Holton, Gerald James |title=Physics, the human adventure: from Copernicus to Einstein and beyond |publisher=Rutgers University Press |location=New Brunswick, N.J |year=2001 |pages= 137 |isbn=0-8135-2908-5 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref>
   
The accuracy of the measured value of ''G'' has increased only modestly since the original Cavendish experiment. ''G'' is quite difficult to measure, as gravity is much weaker than other fundamental forces, and an experimental apparatus cannot be separated from the gravitational influence of other bodies. Furthermore, gravity has no established relation to other fundamental forces, so it does not appear possible to calculate it indirectly from other constants that can be measured more accurately, as is done in some other areas of physics. Published values of ''G'' have varied rather broadly, and some recent measurements of high precision are, in fact, mutually exclusive.<ref name=gillies/><ref name=codata2002>{{Citation |author1=Peter J. Mohr |author2=Barry N. Taylor |title=CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: 2002 |journal=Reviews of Modern Physics |year=January 2005 |volume=77 |issue=1 | pages= 1–107 |url=http://www.atomwave.org/rmparticle/ao%20refs/aifm%20refs%20sorted%20by%20topic/other%20rmp%20articles/CODATA2005.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2006-07-01 |doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.77.1 |author=Mohr, Peter J. |bibcode=2005RvMP...77....1M}}. Section Q (pp. 42–47) describes the mutually inconsistent measurement experiments from which the CODATA value for ''G'' was derived.</ref>
+
The accuracy of the measured value of ''G'' has increased only modestly since the original Cavendish experiment. ''G'' is quite difficult to measure, as gravity is much weaker than other fundamental forces, and an experimental apparatus cannot be separated from the gravitational influence of other bodies. Furthermore, gravity has no established relation to other fundamental forces, so it does not appear possible to calculate it indirectly from other constants that can be measured more accurately, as is done in some other areas of physics. Published values of ''G'' have varied rather broadly, and some recent measurements of high precision are, in fact, mutually exclusive.<ref name=gillies/><ref name=codata2002>{{Citation |author1=Peter J. Mohr |author2=Barry N. Taylor |title=CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: 2002 |journal=Reviews of Modern Physics |year=January 2005 |volume=77 |issue=1 | pages= 1–107 |url=http://www.atomwave.org/rmparticle/ao%20refs/aifm%20refs%20sorted%20by%20topic/other%20rmp%20articles/CODATA2005.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2006-07-01 |doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.77.1 |author=Mohr, Peter J. |bibcode=2005RvMP...77....1M}}. Section Q (pp. 42–47) describes the mutually inconsistent measurement experiments from which the CODATA value for ''G'' was derived.</ref>
   
In the January 5, 2007 issue of ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' (page 74), the report "Atom Interferometer Measurement of the Newtonian Constant of Gravity" (J. B. Fixler, G. T. Foster, J. M. McGuirk, and M. A. Kasevich) describes a new measurement of the gravitational constant. According to the abstract: "Here, we report a value of G = 6.693 × 10<sup>−11</sup> cubic meters per kilogram second squared, with a standard error of the mean of ±0.027 × 10<sup>−11</sup> and a systematic error of ±0.021 × 10<sup>−11</sup> cubic meters per kilogram second squared."<ref>{{Citation |author1=J. B. Fixler |author2=G. T. Foster |author3=J. M. McGuirk |author4=M. A. Kasevich |title=Atom Interferometer Measurement of the Newtonian Constant of Gravity |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/315/5808/74 |date=2007-01-05 |volume=315 |issue=5808 |pages= 74–77 |doi=10.1126/science.1135459 |author=Fixler, J. B. |journal=Science |pmid=17204644|bibcode = 2007Sci...315...74F }}</ref>
+
In the January 5, 2007 issue of ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' (page 74), the report "Atom Interferometer Measurement of the Newtonian Constant of Gravity" (J. B. Fixler, G. T. Foster, J. M. McGuirk, and M. A. Kasevich) describes a new measurement of the gravitational constant. According to the abstract: "Here, we report a value of G = 6.693 × 10<sup>−11</sup> cubic meters per kilogram second squared, with a standard error of the mean of ±0.027 × 10<sup>−11</sup> and a systematic error of ±0.021 × 10<sup>−11</sup> cubic meters per kilogram second squared."<ref>{{Citation |author1=J. B. Fixler |author2=G. T. Foster |author3=J. M. McGuirk |author4=M. A. Kasevich |title=Atom Interferometer Measurement of the Newtonian Constant of Gravity |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/315/5808/74 |date=2007-01-05 |volume=315 |issue=5808 |pages= 74–77 |doi=10.1126/science.1135459 |author=Fixler, J. B. |journal=Science |pmid=17204644|bibcode = 2007Sci...315...74F }}</ref>
   
 
<!--
 
<!--
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:<math>S\!</math> is the [[solar mass]].
 
:<math>S\!</math> is the [[solar mass]].
   
If instead of mean solar day we use the [[sidereal year]] as our time unit, the value of ''ks'' is very close to 2[[pi|π]] (''k'' = 6.28315).
+
If instead of mean solar day we use the [[sidereal year]] as our time unit, the value of ''ks'' is very close to 2[[pi|π]] (''k'' = 6.28315).
   
 
The standard gravitational parameter ''GM'' appears as above in Newton's law of universal gravitation, as well as in formulas for the deflection of light caused by [[gravitational lensing]], in [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion]], and in the formula for [[escape velocity]].
 
The standard gravitational parameter ''GM'' appears as above in Newton's law of universal gravitation, as well as in formulas for the deflection of light caused by [[gravitational lensing]], in [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion]], and in the formula for [[escape velocity]].
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== See also ==
 
== See also ==
 
{{Portal|Physics}}
 
{{Portal|Physics}}
  +
 
<div style="column-count:2;-moz-column-count:2;-webkit-column-count:2">
 
<div style="column-count:2;-moz-column-count:2;-webkit-column-count:2">
 
*[[Dirac large numbers hypothesis]]
 
*[[Dirac large numbers hypothesis]]
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==References==
 
==References==
* E. Myles Standish. "Report of the IAU WGAS Sub-group on Numerical Standards". In ''Highlights of Astronomy'', I. Appenzeller, ed. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1995. ''(Complete report available online: [http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/iau-comm4/iausgnsrpt.ps PostScript]; [http://iau-comm4.jpl.nasa.gov/iausgnsrpt.pdf PDF]. Tables from the report also available: [http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?constants Astrodynamic Constants and Parameters])''
+
* E. Myles Standish. "Report of the IAU WGAS Sub-group on Numerical Standards". In ''Highlights of Astronomy'', I. Appenzeller, ed. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1995. ''(Complete report available online: [http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/iau-comm4/iausgnsrpt.ps PostScript]; [http://iau-comm4.jpl.nasa.gov/iausgnsrpt.pdf PDF]. Tables from the report also available: [http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?constants Astrodynamic Constants and Parameters])''
 
* {{Citation |author1=Jens H. Gundlach |author2=Stephen M. Merkowitz |title=[[arXiv:gr-qc/0006043v1|Measurement of Newton's Constant Using a Torsion Balance with Angular Acceleration Feedback]] |journal=Physical Review Letters |volume=85 |issue=14 |pages= 2869–2872 |year=2000 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.85.2869 |author=Gundlach, Jens H. |pmid=11005956 |bibcode=2000PhRvL..85.2869G|arxiv = gr-qc/0006043 }}
 
* {{Citation |author1=Jens H. Gundlach |author2=Stephen M. Merkowitz |title=[[arXiv:gr-qc/0006043v1|Measurement of Newton's Constant Using a Torsion Balance with Angular Acceleration Feedback]] |journal=Physical Review Letters |volume=85 |issue=14 |pages= 2869–2872 |year=2000 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.85.2869 |author=Gundlach, Jens H. |pmid=11005956 |bibcode=2000PhRvL..85.2869G|arxiv = gr-qc/0006043 }}
   
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
* [http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?bg Newtonian constant of gravitation ''G''] at the {{WPlink|National Institute of Standards and Technology}} [http://physics.nist.gov/cuu References on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty]
+
* [http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?bg Newtonian constant of gravitation ''G''] at the {{WPlink|National Institute of Standards and Technology}} [http://physics.nist.gov/cuu References on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty]
 
* [http://www.npl.washington.edu/eotwash/experiments/bigG/bigG.html The Controversy over Newton's Gravitational Constant] — additional commentary on measurement problems
 
* [http://www.npl.washington.edu/eotwash/experiments/bigG/bigG.html The Controversy over Newton's Gravitational Constant] — additional commentary on measurement problems
 
*[http://www.physik.uni-wuerzburg.de/~rkritzer/grav.pdf The Gravitational Constant]
 
*[http://www.physik.uni-wuerzburg.de/~rkritzer/grav.pdf The Gravitational Constant]

Revision as of 18:12, 26 November 2016

Wikipedia This page uses content from the English Wikipedia. The original article was at Gravitational constant. The list of authors can be seen in the page history. As with the Units of Measurement Wiki, the text of Wikipedia is available under Creative Commons License see Wikia:Licensing.


NewtonsLawOfUniversalGravitation

The gravitational constant G is a key quantity in Newton's law of universal gravitation.

The gravitational constant denoted by letter G, is an empirical physical constant involved in the calculation(s) of gravitational force between two bodies. It appears in Sir Isaac Newton's law of universal gravitation, and in Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity. It is also known as the universal gravitational constant, Newton's constant, and colloquially as Big G.[1] It should not be confused with "little g" (g), which is the local gravitational field (equivalent to the free-fall acceleration[2]), especially that at the Earth's surface.

Laws and constants

According to the law of universal gravitation, the attractive force (F) between two bodies is proportional to the product of their masses (m1 and m2), and inversely proportional to the square of the distance (inverse square law) (r) between them:

The constant of proportionality, G, is the gravitational constant.

The gravitational constant is perhaps the most difficult physical constant to measure to high accuracy.[3] In SI units, the 2010 CODATA-recommended value of the gravitational constant (with standard uncertainty in parentheses) is:[4]

with relative standard uncertainty 1.2×10−4[4], or 1 part in 8,300.

Dimensions, units, and magnitude

The dimensions assigned to the gravitational constant in the equation above—length cubed, divided by mass, and by time squared (in SI units, meters cubed per kilogram per second squared)—are those needed to balance the units of measurements in gravitational equations. However, these dimensions have fundamental significance in terms of Planck units: when expressed in SI units, the gravitational constant is dimensionally and numerically equal to the cube of the Planck length divided by the product of the Planck mass and the square of Planck time.

In natural units, of which Planck units are a common example, G and other physical constants such as c (the speed of light) may be set equal to 1.

In many secondary school texts, the dimensions of G are derived from force in order to assist student comprehension:

In cgs, G can be written as:

G can also be given as:

Given the fact that the period P of an object in circular orbit around a spherical object obeys

where V is the volume inside the radius of the orbit, we see that

This way of expressing G shows the relationship between the average density of a planet and the period of a satellite orbiting just above its surface.

In some fields of astrophysics, where distances are measured in parsecs (pc), velocities in kilometers per second (km/s) and masses in solar units (), it is useful to express G as:

The gravitational force is extremely weak compared with other fundamental forces. For example, the gravitational force between an electron and proton one meter apart is approximately 10−67 newtons, while the electromagnetic force between the same two particles is approximately 10−28 newtons. Both these forces are weak when compared with the forces we are able to experience directly, but the electromagnetic force in this example is some thirty nine orders of magnitude (i.e., 1039) greater than the force of gravity — roughly the same ratio as the mass of the Sun compared to a microgram mass.

History of measurement

The gravitational constant appears in Newton's law of universal gravitation, but it was not measured until seventy one years after Newton's death by Henry Cavendish with his Cavendish experiment, performed in 1798 (Philosophical Transactions 1798). Cavendish measured G implicitly, using a torsion balance invented by the geologist Rev. John Michell. He used a horizontal torsion beam with lead balls whose inertia (in relation to the torsion constant) he could tell by timing the beam's oscillation. Their faint attraction to other balls placed alongside the beam was detectable by the deflection it caused. Cavendish's aim was not actually to measure the gravitational constant, but rather to measure the Earth's density relative to water, through the precise knowledge of the gravitational interaction. In retrospect, the density that Cavendish calculated implies a value for G of 6.754 × 10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2.[5]

The accuracy of the measured value of G has increased only modestly since the original Cavendish experiment. G is quite difficult to measure, as gravity is much weaker than other fundamental forces, and an experimental apparatus cannot be separated from the gravitational influence of other bodies. Furthermore, gravity has no established relation to other fundamental forces, so it does not appear possible to calculate it indirectly from other constants that can be measured more accurately, as is done in some other areas of physics. Published values of G have varied rather broadly, and some recent measurements of high precision are, in fact, mutually exclusive.[3][6]

In the January 5, 2007 issue of Science (page 74), the report "Atom Interferometer Measurement of the Newtonian Constant of Gravity" (J. B. Fixler, G. T. Foster, J. M. McGuirk, and M. A. Kasevich) describes a new measurement of the gravitational constant. According to the abstract: "Here, we report a value of G = 6.693 × 10−11 cubic meters per kilogram second squared, with a standard error of the mean of ±0.027 × 10−11 and a systematic error of ±0.021 × 10−11 cubic meters per kilogram second squared."[7]


The GM product

Main article: Standard gravitational parameter

The quantity GM—the product of the gravitational constant and the mass of a given astronomical body such as the Sun or the Earth—is known as the standard gravitational parameter and is denoted . Depending on the body concerned, it may also be called the geocentric or heliocentric gravitational constant, among other names.

This quantity gives a convenient simplification of various gravity-related formulas. Also, for celestial bodies such as the Earth and the Sun, the value of the product GM is known more accurately than each factor independently. Indeed, the limited accuracy available for G often limits the accuracy of scientific determination of such masses in the first place.

For Earth, using M as the symbol for the mass of the Earth, we have

Calculations in celestial mechanics can also be carried out using the unit of solar mass rather than the standard SI unit kilogram. In this case we use the Gaussian gravitational constant which is k2, where

and

is the astronomical unit;
is the mean solar day;
is the solar mass.

If instead of mean solar day we use the sidereal year as our time unit, the value of ks is very close to 2π (k = 6.28315).

The standard gravitational parameter GM appears as above in Newton's law of universal gravitation, as well as in formulas for the deflection of light caused by gravitational lensing, in Kepler's laws of planetary motion, and in the formula for escape velocity.

See also

Template:Portal

  • Dirac large numbers hypothesis
  • Accelerating Universe
  • Gravity expressed in terms of orbital period
  • Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment
  • Cosmological constant
  • Gravitational coupling constant
  • Strong gravitational constant

Notes

  1. "University of Washington Big G Measurement". Astrophysics Science Division. Goddard Space Flight Center. 2002-12-23. http://asd.gsfc.nasa.gov/Stephen.Merkowitz/G/Big_G.html. "Since Cavendish first measured Newton's Gravitational constant 200 years ago, "Big G" remains one of the most elusive constants in physics." 
  2. Fundamentals of Physics 8ed,Halliday/Resnick/Walker, ISBN 978-0-470-04618-0 p 336
  3. 3.0 3.1 George T. Gillies (1997), "The Newtonian gravitational constant: recent measurements and related studies", Reports on Progress in Physics 60 (2): 151–225, wikipedia:Bibcode 1997RPPh...60..151G, doi:10.1088/0034-4885/60/2/001, http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/0034-4885/60/2/001 . A lengthy, detailed review. See Figure 1 and Table 2 in particular.
  4. 4.0 4.1 P.J. Mohr, B.N. Taylor, and D.B. Newell (2011), "The 2010 CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants" (Web Version 6.0). This database was developed by J. Baker, M. Douma, and S. Kotochigova. Available: http://physics.nist.gov/constants [Thursday, 02-Jun-2011 21:00:12 EDT]. National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899.
  5. Brush, Stephen G.; Holton, Gerald James (2001), Physics, the human adventure: from Copernicus to Einstein and beyond, New Brunswick, N.J: Rutgers University Press, pp. 137, ISBN 0-8135-2908-5 
  6. Peter J. Mohr; Barry N. Taylor (January 2005), "CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: 2002" (PDF), Reviews of Modern Physics 77 (1): 1–107, wikipedia:Bibcode 2005RvMP...77....1M, doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.77.1, http://www.atomwave.org/rmparticle/ao%20refs/aifm%20refs%20sorted%20by%20topic/other%20rmp%20articles/CODATA2005.pdf, retrieved 2006-07-01 . Section Q (pp. 42–47) describes the mutually inconsistent measurement experiments from which the CODATA value for G was derived.
  7. J. B. Fixler; G. T. Foster; J. M. McGuirk; M. A. Kasevich (2007-01-05), "Atom Interferometer Measurement of the Newtonian Constant of Gravity", Science 315 (5808): 74–77, wikipedia:Bibcode 2007Sci...315...74F, doi:10.1126/science.1135459, PMID 17204644, http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/315/5808/74 

References

External links